28 results for “archaeology”
Harappan cities show remarkable attention to streets, houses, drainage, wells and water storage. Mohenjo-daro developed an elaborate network of wells and drains, while Dholavira created large reservoirs to survive in an arid environment.
Siddhartha Gautama was a historical religious teacher associated with the Shakya community. Buddhist tradition connects his birth with Lumbini, enlightenment with Bodh Gaya, first sermon with Sarnath and Mahaparinirvana with Kushinagar. His path rejected both sensual indulgence and extreme self-mortification in favour of the Middle Way.
Bimbisara and Ajatashatru played crucial roles in the early expansion of Magadha. Bimbisara conquered Anga and used diplomatic marriage alliances, while Ajatashatru continued expansion through major conflicts with Kosala and the Vajji confederacy.
Not all Mahajanapadas were ruled by hereditary monarchs. While states such as Magadha and Kosala were monarchies, polities such as Vajji and Malla were associated with gana-sangha systems in which political authority was shared among elite clan members. These were not modern democracies.
Vedic literature extends beyond the four Vedas. The Samhitas contain hymns and mantras, the Brahmanas explain sacrifice and ritual, the Aranyakas explore deeper symbolic meanings of ritual, and the Upanishads increasingly focus on philosophical questions concerning the self, ultimate reality, karma, rebirth and liberation.
Cattle and pastoralism were highly important in the Rigvedic economy, although agriculture was already known. During the Later Vedic period, agriculture became increasingly central, permanent settlements expanded, iron use grew and production became more diversified.
Harappan cities supported highly skilled craftspeople and wide trade networks. Beads, shell objects, pottery, metals and standardized weights reveal both specialized production and strong systems of exchange within the Indus world and beyond.
The first cities of the Indian subcontinent did not appear suddenly. Over thousands of years, hunting and gathering, farming, settled villages, craft production and growing trade networks gradually created the conditions for Harappan urbanization.
